Developed by Mark David Richards, [email protected]. Suggestions for updates and
revisions welcome.
Timeline
1791: District surveyed and what would later become “Washington City” placed
under direction of three Commissioners appointed by George Washington. Incorporated towns
of Georgetown and Alexandria City continue to be governed under terms of their
incorporation. The remaining areas continue to be governed partly by the Commissioners and
partly under the forms of county governance used in the ceding states of Maryland and
Virginia.
1799: George Washington dies.
1800: Congress moves from Philadelphia to Washington City in the District of Columbia.
1801: Congress divides District into two counties — Alexandria and Washington
counties.
1802: Congress abolishes Board of Commissioners, incorporates and establishes limited
local self-government in Washington City with Presidentially appointed Mayor and 12-member
City Council elected by free while male property owners with 1 year residence. Five serve
in upper house, 7 in lower house. Charter provides authority for “the establishment
and superintendence of schools.”
1804: Congress extends Washington City 1802 Charter 15 years, provides for direct
elections of both houses of Council, each with 9 members. Council establishes school for
Washington youth under 13-member Board of Trustees: 7 appointed by Council, 6 by all who
contributed more than $10 to the public schools. Whites only. Thomas Jefferson elected to
the Board, served as Board President for 4 years.
1807: First black school organized by former slaves George Bell, Nicholas Franklin, and
Moses Liverpool; supported by private contributions.
1811: Lancasterian school started in Georgetown (older pupils used as monitors to hear
recitations of younger pupils — one skilled school master could handle several
hundred children in this way). Similar school opens in Washington in 1812.
1812: Congress provides for election of Washington City Mayor by the two houses of
Council. Enlarges Council with 8-member Board of Aldermen (2 from each of 4 wards), and a
12-member Common Council (3 from each ward).
1816: Washington City Council divides city into two geographic school districts, with
two Boards of Trustees — one selected per the 1804 model, the other entirely by
Council.
1818: Washington City Council appoints Trustees to both Boards.
1820: Congress extends Washington City charter, provides for election of Mayor by white
male property owners. Public schools become “pauper schools” as Council directs
trustees to only accept the poor due to financial problems. Whites only.
1842: City of Georgetown assumes responsibility for private schools receiving public
funds, creates 7-member Board of school guardians appointed by Georgetown Council.
1844: Washington City Council reorganizes schools into single system under 13-member
Board of Trustees, 3 appointed by Council from each of the city’s four wards, with
Mayor as President of the Board, ex officio. Those who could afford paid some tuition.
Mayor William Seaton played lead role. Tuition-paying pupils accepted at 5 cents per
month.
1846: Congress votes to allow Alexandria City and County retrocede to Virginia.
Residents of the city approve, residents of county excluded from referendum vote.
1848: Congress approves new charter for Washington City which provides for election of
Board of Assessors, register, collector, and surveyor; abolishes property qualification
and extends vote to all white males who pay $1 school tax to support free white public
schools. Schools become object of political disputes between branches of government.
1857: Washington City Council provides for Superintendent of Public Instruction,
appointed by school trustees. Mayor vetoes act, says he should appoint Superintendent like
other executive officers.
1858: Washington City Council transfers authority to appoint trustees to Mayor,
increases trustees’ powers. Requires trustees to furnish annual estimate of operating
budget and year end school report. Board divided into sub-Boards, each with responsibility
for supervising in detail schools in different districts.
1862: Congress passes law mandating all children (age 6-14) in District, black and
white, required to receive 3 months education per year. Requires 10% of taxes collected on
“Negro-owned property” to be set aside for black schools, under supervision of a
Board of Trustees for Colored Schools, appointed by the Secretary of the Interior.
1864: Sums from black property taxes lower than Congress expected, Congress revises
formula requiring District cities to pay a portion of education funds to colored schools
equal to proportion of school-age black children. District cities resisted, Washington
Mayor Wallach complains that Congress has never given any aid to District schools, as it
had in the territories. Congress establishes a 7-member School Commission appointed by the
County Levy Court to establish and govern Washington County schools (1 from each of 7
school districts in the county).
1869: Washington City Council provides for appointment of Superintendent of Schools by
Mayor.
1871: Congress defines entire District as one political unit under single government
modeled after Congressionally created Territorial forms of government. Congress repeals
Charters of District cities of Georgetown and Washington, eliminates existing government
offices and powers. Also eliminates the office and powers of the Washington County levy
court. Under the new “Territorial” government, President appoints governor,
Boards of public works and health, and an upper house. DC voters elect lower house and a
non-voting delegate to Congress. Territorial government assumes responsibility for
appointing Superintendents for the three school systems — puts responsibility under
one Superintendent, reporting to 3 Boards in 3 systems. Black schools in Washington and
Georgetown retain their own Trustees and Superintendent, appointed by the Secretary of the
Interior.
1873: Congress gives Territorial Governor authority to appoint Trustees and
Superintendent to black schools. Washington Normal School started (whites only) to train
teachers.
1874: Congress abolishes Territorial government, replaced with 3-member Board of
Commissioners (two civilians, one an officer of the Army Corps of Engineers) appointed by
the President and confirmed by Congress (DC’s new legislative body). Commissioners
replace four Boards of School Trustees with one 19-member Board: 11 from Washington City,
3 from Georgetown, 5 from Washington County. Five required to be black. Two
Superintendents — one for white schools, one for black.
1876: First public school beyond 8th grade — Advanced Grammar School for Girls
— started; school for boys started a year later. Preparatory High School (now known
as Dunbar, after poet Laurence Dunbar), started in 1870 as grammar school, becomes first
black high school (offers 9th grade and beyond).
1878: Commissioner government made permanent under Organic Act, providing for 50%
payment of District budget (reduced to 40% in 1919; fixed percentage ended in 1925).
Provides for 19-member Board of Trustees of Public Schools, appointed by Commissioners.
1882: Congress reduces Board to 9 members, 3 of whom must be black. Washington High
School opens at 7th and ) Sts. NW, covering 3 years’ work beyond grammar school.
1885: Commissioners announce they are taking over duties of trustees (whom they
appoint); after citizen protest and mass meetings, Commissioners return some power to
trustees.
1895: Congress enlarges Board to 11, authorizes appointment of women to Board. Congress
eliminates “Georgetown” as a specific place name in the law and consolidates
that area into the city of Washington. All municipal ordinances of Washington extended to
Georgetown, Georgetown ordinances repealed.
1900: Commissioners dismiss reform Superintendent of white schools, Senate District
Committee investigates school management, holds hearings, Congress determines role of
trustees is vague and too easily assumed by Commissioners, sets up 7-member Board of
Education (7-year terms) appointed by Commissioners. Board given complete jurisdiction
over all public school administrative matters, power to appoint 1 Superintendent and 2
Assistant Superintendents (1 for white, 1 for black schools), power to employ and fire all
teachers and employees. Board required to submit yearly budget to Commissioners, which
Commission forwarded with recommendations to Congress as part of overall budget. Board
members paid $10 per meeting, $500 cap per year. Citizens begin to complain that paid
Board gets too involved in school management.
1906: Congress sets up 9-member Board of Education composed of DC residents, requires 3
members be women. To assure independence of Commissioners, makes judges of the Supreme
Court of DC responsible for appointment, elaborates in greater detail the authority of the
Board and Superintendent. Tradition develops that 3 members (1 woman, 2 men) would be
black. Budget remains under Commissioner control. Appointees changed in 1936 to District
Court of U.S. for DC, and again in 1948 to U.S. District Court for DC. (Act of June 20,
1906 is the Basic Authority of current School Board — 34 Stat. 316, ch. 3446, as
amended).
1918: Citizens’ Joint Committee for an Elective School Board, headed by Board of
Trade member, established to lobby for elected Board (movement gained 70 organizational
members over next 10 years).
1920: Beginning in 1920, there were numerous proposals and committee and sub-committee
hearings in Congress to modify the structure of the school system in a variety of ways.
1930: A unit of local history and government was made part of the required American
history course for junior-high-school pupils. No textbook and very little material was
available, a committee of teachers of social studies in Washington schools prepared a
pamphlet, published in 1933, and later in a volume entitled “Washington, Yesterday
and Today.”
1948: First of a series of DC Home Rule bills (subsequently introduced in nearly every
session of Congress, but blocked from reaching floor for a vote by southern
segregationists) introduced — calls for payment of Board members, to be popularly
elected, with City Manager who would participate in Board meetings. Appointed Board
opposes plan. School Board issue and Home Rule are linked.
1949: Strayer Report (George Strayer of Columbia University) recommends administrative
and supervisory responsibility be delegated at each level where it can function
effectively.
1952: Board instructs Superintendent to study possibility of desegregation; report
received after 1954 concludes that Board “spent most of its time on administrative
matters, such as school transfers rather than on policy questions.”
1954: Bolling v. Sharpe invalidated the use of racially separated educational
facilities in DC. Congressional payment drops to 8.5%, prompting citizens to increasingly
question Congressional involvement in District decision-making.
1956: Board of Education embarks on the Track System (“ability grouping”) to
deal with shifting demographics related to desegregated system. Judge who heads Board
selection committee suggests transferring selection to Commissioners. Davis Investigation
of public school conditions (House District Committee) — according to Carl Hansen,
advocate of desegregation, it was designed to show desegregation had failed.
1958: Hansen appointed Superintendent. Hansen develops and implements Track System.
1966: Citizen organization established to lobby for elected Board, headed by Rev.
Channing Phillips. Hobson v. Hansen — Julius Hobson sues Superintendent Hansen, the
Board, and DC judges for unconstitutionally depriving the poor and black school children
of equal education opportunities, says appointment of Board by judges places Court in
conflict of interest when hearing suits against schools. Board did not appeal on advice of
Corporation Council. Hansen resigns, appeals on his own behalf, loses appeal (1969).
Racial composition of DCPS: 92% black. The Pucinski Report on poverty in DC schools —
commissioned by U.S. Congress in 1965 — released.
1967: President Johnson abolishes Board of Commissioners, replaces with an appointed
Commissioner/Mayor, Deputy Mayor, and an appointed City Council and placed a majority of
black officials in charge — Congress did not veto plan. Judges appoint majority black
Board, but continue practice of not reappointing members who are too “vocal.”
Judges of US Court of Appeals and the District Court vote unanimously to ask Congress to
relieve the court of appointment responsibility. Board releases report on DC schools by
Teachers College, Columbia University ("Passow Report"), saying Board
“operates intuitively, not from clear analysis of policy regarding its
responsibilities and functions,” said problem stemmed from divided authority
structure, and called for community control and decentralization; recommended 8 Community
Boards of Education, each with a Superintendent approved by central Board. Congress
continues to debate issue, divided along identity and ideological lines as issue is seen
through lens of larger Home Rule and Civil Rights issues.
1968: Congress establishes 11-member elected Board of Education — 3 At-large, 1
per Ward. Power to appoint superintendent. 70% registered voters go to polls for first
election in which 53 candidates run. Fragmented vote — only Hobson amassed required
number votes to be elected. Runoff election held on November 26th.
1969: Julius Hobson elected to Board at-large. 19 Reports of the Executive Study Group
for a Model Urban School System for DC approved by Board, after involvement of the
"professional and general communities" in the generation of new proposals based
on Passow Report.
1970: The Dowdy Report by Congressman John Dowdy with in-depth review of paid
personnel, hiring practices, discipline and control and standard operating procedures of
DCPS. Found widespread violations of DC and U.S. laws on school property. Focused on crime
and law enforcement.
1971: Management Review Report by U.S. Office of Education and DCPS to strengthen
federally-supported programs.
1972: The Nelson Commission Report gives recommendations for organizational and
operational structure of city government and DCPS. (White) Congressman John McMillan
(South Carolina) loses his seat, (Black) Charles Diggs (Michigan) becomes head of House
District Committee. Diggs holds hearings, develops Home Rule bill. Proposes a Board of
Regents appointed by Mayor and Council as supervisory authority over Board of Education
and public colleges. Board opposes plan. Diggs drops proposal.
1974: Congress establishes Home Rule government with elected Mayor, 13-member City
Council (8 ward, 5 At-large, one of which is Chairman)
1975: Elected Home Rule government takes office in January. School Board votes to
include local history in public school curriculum. Group led by Superintendent Vincent
Reed, Associate Superintendent James Guines, and historian Kathryn Schneider Smith form
the DC History Curriculum Project, assemble scholars and experts to prepare course. Pilot
projects resulting in 7 texts were edited and combined into book City of Magnificent
Intentions: A History of the District of Columbia (1983, 1997).
1976: DC Law 1-35, DC Public Postsecondary Education Reorganization Act amendments
include compensation of Board members; contracting and reprogramming powers. Board votes
to establish Advisory Neighborhood School Councils.
1981: Board reduces number of Advisory Neighborhood School Council regions from 6 to 4
to reduce costs.
1989: Our Children, Our Future report released by the DC Committee on Public Education
(set up by Federal City Council).
1992: A Time to Act released by DC Committee on Public Education.
1993: BESST: Bringing Educational Services to Students — DC Public Schools
Educational Reform Agenda by Superintendent Franklin Smith.
1995: Congress passes and President signs law creating Presidentially-appointed
District of Columbia Financial Responsibility and Management Board (“Control
Board”) and a mayor-appointed Chief Financial Officer. Congress establishes DC Public
Charter School Board as part of DC School Reform Act of 1995 to grant charters authority
to establish charter schools independent of the public school system. Like public schools,
they receive funds based percentage of enrollment. Mayor appoints 7-member Board from list
of 15 nominees selected by U.S. Secretary of Education. DC School Board also authorized to
grant charters. 31.5% DC public students live in poverty.
1996: Control Board fires Superintendent, strips elected School Board of most of its
authority until June 2000, slashes salaries from $30,000 to $15,000, gives oversight to
appointed 9-member Board of Trustees (one of which is for the School Board President).
General Julius W. Becton appointed by Control Board as CEO/Superintendent/Trustee/State
Education Officer.
1997: Congress passes and President signs National Capital Revitalization and
Self-Government Act, stripping authority from all locally-elected representatives and
transferring day-to-day control of 9 of 12 agencies to appointed Control Board. Bill
provides $200 million in debt relief, takes back unfunded $5 billion pension liability
transferred to District government in 1974, and takes over Medicaid, courts, and prisons
(“state functions”). Locally-elected officials can regain authority after four
consecutive balanced budgets. Arlene Ackerman hired as Chief Academic Officer and Deputy
Superintendent by Control Board, with understanding she will become Superintendent when
General Becton retires. DC Public Charter School Board begins operating, receives 26
applications.
1998: DC Public School Task Force charged with finding ways to improve education for
Hispanics, Asians, and other non-English speakers quit en masse, saying school officials
ignore their advice. General Becton quits, saying some Control Board members were aligned
against him, questioned his integrity, over $62 million operating deficit created under
his watch by not firing the required 400 administrators and other employees. Becton’s
handpicked successor, Arlene Ackerman, appointed Superintendent by Control Board for
3-years at $150,000, performance bonuses, and $9,600 per year car allowance. Appeals Court
rules on Board lawsuit — Control Board does not have authority to delegate power to
Trustees, Control Board makes Trustees an advisory panel.
2000: ?
Primary Sources:
Government of the District of Columbia Organization Handbook No. 1200.1, 2nd
Edition, by the Executive Office of Mayor Walter Washington, Nov. 1, 1977.
The Governance of Education in the District of Columbia: An Historical Analysis of
Current Issues, by Steven J. Diner, Chair, Department of Urban Studies, University of
the District of Columbia, Studies in DC History and Public Policy, Paper No. 2, 1982.
Governing the District of Columbia: An Introduction by Royce Hanson and
Bernard H. Ross, Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, 1971.